Religious Significance of Animals
Sacred Animals and Deities
Animals in Ancient Egypt were more than companions or creatures—they were sacred embodiments of divine power and symbolic meaning. The ancient Egyptians revered many animals as physical manifestations of their gods, intertwining nature with spirituality in their daily lives.
The falcon represented Horus, the sky god and protector of the pharaoh, symbolizing kingship and divine authority. The cat was sacred to Bastet, goddess of home, fertility, and protection, often portrayed as a feline or a woman with a cat’s head. Crocodiles were associated with Sobek, a powerful deity linked to the Nile’s strength and dangers, depicted with a crocodile’s head.
The jackal was connected to Anubis, god of embalming and guardian of the dead, while the ibis and baboon symbolized Thoth, the wise god of writing and knowledge. Even fearsome creatures held divine status—the cobra (uraeus) symbolized royal protection and was linked to Wadjet and Ra, and the lioness embodied fierce protection through goddesses like Sekhmet.
By honouring these animals, the Egyptians wove together their natural environment with a rich pantheon of deities, creating a unique worldview where every creature held sacred purpose.
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Animal Cults and Temple Worship
Certain animals were not only seen as representations of deities, but as living embodiments housing a god’s soul. These were tended in special cults with dedicated temples. The most famous was the cult of the Apis Bull in Memphis, where a single living bull at any time was believed to be the incarnation of the creator god Ptah. This bull, identified by specific sacred markings, lived in luxury – fed and honored by priests – and upon death it was mummified with great ceremony. Its death was a cause for national mourning and elaborate royal ritual, after which a new Apis calf with the proper markings would be installed as the next sacred bull. Dozens of these Apis bulls have been found buried in the grand underground tombs of the Serapeum at Saqqara. Similarly, at Bubastis in the Nile Delta, the cat-goddess Bastet was worshipped in a temple teeming with sacred cats. Herodotus recorded that huge festivals were held there, with tens of thousands of revelers singing, dancing, and drinking in honor of Bastet. In these annual festivals, the joyful, even ecstatic celebration of the feline deity reflected her role in bringing fertility and protection. Other deities had their own animal cult centers: the crocodile god Sobek was venerated at Crocodilopolis in the Faiyum, where a sacred crocodile named “Petsuchos” was kept in a pool and pampered by priests. The ram of Khnum on Elephantine Island, the Buchis bull of Montu in Thebes, and the Mnevis bull of Heliopolis were all examples of regionally sacred animals treated as divine oracles and cared for in temple estates. These cult animals lived in sanctuaries, received offerings, and in some cases were even consulted for omens. Harming one was unthinkable – to injure a sacred animal was tantamount to blasphemy.
Animal Mummification and Offerings
Animals also played a direct role in Egyptian religious practice through mummification and votive offerings. Aside from humans, Egyptians mummified countless animals including cats, dogs, bulls, ibises, falcons, baboons, and even crocodiles. Some of these were the beloved temple animals who, after death, were embalmed with care and buried in coffins (for instance, each Apis bull was mummified and placed in a huge stone sarcophagus. Many more animal mummies, however, were created as votive offerings. Pilgrims visiting a god’s shrine might purchase a mummified animal of the species sacred to that deity, and dedicate it as a prayer or offering in hope of divine favor. This practice became especially widespread in the Late Period (c. 664–332 BCE) and Ptolemaic era. At sites like Saqqara, Bubastis, and Tuna el-Gebel, vast catacombs were dug to house these offerings. For example, the “Cemetery of Cats” at North Saqqara contained thousands of mummified cats interred near a temple of Bastet. Devotees would present a cat mummy to Bastet as an act of piety, believing the spirit of that cat would carry their prayers to the goddess. This became an industry: animals were bred in huge numbers by temple staff (“animal farms”) to meet the demand for votive mummies. Millions of such animal mummies have been found. Notably, the sacred ibis – representing Thoth – was mummified by the millions; an estimated 1.75 million ibis burials have been recorded at Saqqara (near Memphis) and about four million more in the catacombs at Tuna el-Gebel in Middle Egypt. The scale of this practice shows how deeply everyday people engaged with animal worship. The animal mummy was a physical token of prayer, placed in catacombs with care so that the gods would heed the pilgrims’ petitions. Even in death these creatures were treated with reverence: many were buried in dedicated cemeteries with inscribed coffins or jars, and some mummies show special touches (for instance, mummified crocodiles have been found with baby crocodiles carefully wrapped and placed in their mouths or on their back – mirroring how mother crocs carry their young – as a sign of renewal and protection.
Symbolism in Mythology and Art
Animals as Symbols in Myth and Art
Animals suffused Egyptian mythology and art with rich symbolism. Gods could take animal form in myths to enact cosmic drama. A famous example is the sun god Ra’s nightly battle against Apophis, a giant chaos serpent. In one legend, Ra transforms into a great tomcat to slay Apophis under the sacred persea tree, a scene that appears in religious art to symbolize the triumph of order over chaos. The protective eye of Ra (the “Eye of Ra” goddess) was often personified as a lioness or cobra who vanquishes the sun’s enemies. Similarly, the sky goddess Nut was sometimes portrayed as a giant cow whose body formed the heavens, and the earth god Geb could be depicted with a goose (one of his symbols) atop his head. In Egyptian art, animals were used as metaphors and omens: a scene of a pharaoh subduing a wild beast signified his dominance over the forces of chaos. Pharaohs are frequently shown hunting dangerous game in tomb and temple reliefs, not merely as record of sport but as a statement of divine order. For instance, images of the king spearing a hippopotamus in the marshes carry a deep meaning – the hippo, which could ravage crops and was linked to chaos, represents evil, and the king’s successful hunt signifies the restoration of harmony and Ma’at (universal order). Likewise, pharaonic hunts of lions are depicted to showcase royal courage and might. Lions were strongly linked to royalty as emblems of strength and virility; Pharaohs even kept live lions (and other big cats like cheetahs) as a sign of power, and tomb texts note that kings prided themselves on slaying lions as a display of heroism. Even mundane art like tomb paintings of daily life often included animals with symbolic undertones. The famous New Kingdom painting of Nebamun hunting birds in the marshes shows his pet cat catching birds among the papyrus reeds – a realistic scene, yet the cat may also symbolize the sun-god’s eye capturing the forces of chaos (the birds) so that the tomb owner, Nebamun, could enjoy eternal order in the afterlife.
Hybrid Deities with Animal Features
One of the most striking features of Egyptian religion is the prevalence of hybrid deities – gods depicted with a human body and an animal head, or sometimes as animals with human attributes. This artistic convention expressed a deity’s nature and powers. The Egyptians believed that combining human and animal forms in imagery conveyed the deity’s superhuman qualities. Anubis, for instance, appears in art as a man with the head of a jackal (or wild dog). This jackal-headed form signified Anubis’s role as protector of cemeteries and guide of souls, drawing on the jackal’s presence around desert tombs. Anubis’s black jackal head also symbolized the embalming resin and the fertile black soil of rebirth, fitting for a god of mummification. Thoth, the god of knowledge and the moon, was often shown with the head of an ibis bird and sometimes as a baboon – two animals sacred to him. The ibis, with its long beak, was associated with wisdom (perhaps because ibises frequented the temple precincts at dusk, linking them to the moon and writing), and baboons at dawn were observed “squawking” at the sunrise, as if in prayer, hence both creatures signified Thoth’s intellectual and cosmic duties. Sekhmet, the fearsome goddess of war and pestilence, was portrayed as a lioness-headed woman, embodying the fierce and protective qualities of the lioness. In contrast, her counterpart Bastet eventually came to be shown with a mild cat’s head, reflecting a gentler aspect of feline power. Other notable hybrid gods include Horus as a falcon-headed man, combining royal humanity with the keen vision and swiftness of a falcon, and Sobek as a crocodile-headed man, projecting the might and fertility of the Nile crocodile. The ram-headed Khnum represented creative power (like a ram’s virility) as he fashioned humans on a potter’s wheel, and Hathor was sometimes shown with cow ears or a cow’s head to symbolize motherhood and nourishment. In Egyptian eyes, these mixed forms were not seen as bizarre but as perfectly natural religious iconography: they illustrated that the gods had infinite forms. By combining the most meaningful attributes of animals with human shape, Egyptian artists and priests communicated a deity’s identity at a glance. In addition to major gods, there were composite creatures in mythology such as Ammit, the demon that devoured condemned souls, depicted with the head of a crocodile, the foreparts of a lion, and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus – essentially the three most dangerous animals to Egyptians, merged into a single symbol of divine retribution. These hybrid and composite figures decorated temple walls, coffins, papyri, and jewelry, constantly reminding Egyptians of the divine qualities embodied by the animal kingdom.
Economic and Practical Roles of Animals
Agriculture and Livestock
Beyond religion and symbolism, animals were indispensable to the practical life and economy of ancient Egypt. Agriculture was the backbone of Egypt’s wealth, and it relied on domesticated animals for labor and food. Cattle were especially important – herds of cattle, goats, and sheep were kept by farmers and large estates. From the earliest times, oxen (castrated bulls) pulled plows to break up the rich but heavy Nile silt for planting. As soon as the annual floodwaters receded, teams of oxen dragged wooden plows to turn the soil, greatly speeding up farming compared to hand-digging. Cows and goats were driven over freshly sown fields to trample seeds into the ground, an efficient method to ensure the seeds took root. Cattle provided meat, milk, leather hides, and dung (used as fuel and fertilizer). In fact, cattle were a measure of wealth – tomb scenes often show officials tallying cattle, and the state regularly held a “cattle count” as a census of wealth. Egyptians valued their cows and bulls so much that they sometimes gave individual animals pet names. They are depicted with great affection in tomb art, suggesting farmers cared for their herds diligently. Bulls in particular were admired for their strength and virility; beyond their sacred roles, they were bred to improve stock and sometimes even used in sport (there are depictions of ceremonial bull hunts or bull-leaping in certain periods).
Donkeys were another pillar of Egyptian agriculture and transport. Egypt was likely one of the first places to domesticate the donkey (from the African wild ass) around 6,000 years ago. By the Old Kingdom (circa 2700 BCE), tomb engravings already show donkeys carrying heavy loads of grain and farm goods. Donkeys were the workhorses of Egypt (before actual horses arrived): they hauled harvests from the field, turned millstones, and bore people and goods across desert paths. A sturdy pack donkey could carry water jars, firewood, and trade goods over long distances in the hot climate, going where carts could not. While commoners might not ride donkeys often (and elite preferred litters or chariots later), these animals were prized for their endurance and sure-footedness on all terrain.
Sheep and goats were raised in large numbers too. They grazed on stubble after the harvest, providing mutton, wool, and goat hair. Pigs were kept by some farmers as well – they were fed scraps and allowed to forage in marshy areas. Uniquely, pigs and sheep were even used to “plow” in a way: farmers would scatter seed and drive herds across the field to press the seeds into the soil with their hooves. Poultry was domesticated early: tombs show scenes of geese and ducks being force-fed grain to fatten them, and there were enclosures for raising pigeons or doves (both for meat and later for message-carrying). Honey bees were semi-domesticated in hives – honey was the main sweetener and also used medicinally, and Egyptians even had a charming myth that bees were born from the tears of Ra, the sun god. In sum, domesticated animals formed a vital support system for Egyptian agriculture: plowing fields, producing food, and serving as a form of wealth and currency.
Transportation and Hunting
For transport, Egyptians relied on animal power in an age before mechanical vehicles. The Nile River was the main highway of Egypt, and boats were crucial, but on land travel and freight depended on animals. Donkeys were the primary pack animals for thousands of years, carrying people and goods along desert routes and village roads. The use of wheeled carts was limited (especially in the Old and Middle Kingdoms) because the desert terrain and absence of good roads made pack animals more practical. Instead, caravans of donkeys were used to transport grain, stone, and trade goods between the Nile Valley and outlying oases or mines. In desert mining areas, inscriptions often thank donkeys for their hard work. Horses, on the other hand, were a late introduction. They were brought into Egypt around the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1700–1550 BCE), likely by the Hyksos or other Near Eastern peoples. By the New Kingdom (c. 1500 BCE), horses and chariots had become highly valued by the Egyptian elite. Teams of horses pulling light two-wheeled chariots gave the Egyptians a powerful military and status tool. These chariots (drawn by two horses) were used in battle, for royal hunts, and in ceremonial processions. Initially, horses were so rare and prestigious that only pharaohs and nobles owned them, and they were lavishly stabled and groomed.
Chariotry became a hallmark of New Kingdom armies – Pharaoh Tutankhamun’s tomb contained ornate chariots and harnesses for his horses. However, Egyptians did not commonly ride horses for daily transport; even in later periods, riding horseback was secondary to chariot-driving.
For long treks in the Sahara or trade expeditions, camels were surprisingly not in regular use until the Late Period (perhaps introduced by the Persians or later). The dromedary camel became important in Ptolemaic and Roman times for desert trade, but during most of pharaonic history, donkeys sufficed for land transport.
Animals also played a major role in hunting and food gathering. The Nile’s marshes and deserts around Egypt were rich in wildlife, and Egyptians of all classes took part in hunting, whether for sustenance or sport. Common people would fish the Nile using nets, harpoons, and lines, and trap waterfowl in nets or with throwing sticks. Tomb paintings show peasants netting wild ducks and geese in the reeds or catching fish—activities that not only provided food but also had symbolic resonance for rebirth and nourishment in the afterlife. The wealthy, meanwhile, engaged in grand hunting expeditions. Noblemen in the Old and Middle Kingdoms are depicted hunting birds with throw-sticks and spears from reed boats, sometimes with the assistance of trained cats and dogs. A vivid example is in Nebamun’s tomb painting, where his cat springs on birds mid-air as Nebamun flushes them from the papyrus thicket.
In the deserts (the “red land” or deshret), Egyptians hunted gazelles, antelopes, wild cattle, oryx, and ostriches. Hunters with dogs would drive game into nets or within range of archers. Hunting dogs (similar to greyhounds) are frequently shown aiding their masters by chasing down animals or retrieving fallen birds. The Egyptians even used lassos to capture animals like wild bulls or ibex; a tomb scene shows a hunter skillfully roping an oryx by the horns and legs with a thrown loop. For the pharaoh and high nobility, the most dangerous prey – lions, hippopotami, and wild bulls – provided the ultimate test of bravery. Pharaohs from the earliest times took pride in hunting lions in the deserts of Sinai and Nubia. Amenhotep III claimed to have slain over 100 lions in his first ten years as king (likely a propagandistic boast). Lion hunts and bull-hunts were staged in controlled environments at times, almost like royal tournaments. The hippopotamus was hunted along the Nile’s marshy backwaters; since hippos were aggressive and could overturn boats, killing one was an achievement commemorated in art and texts. These royal hunts were laden with symbolism as noted, but they also had practical impacts: controlling dangerous beasts that could threaten crops or people. Additionally, some animals were captured alive. Pharaohs maintained menageries of exotic animals both for prestige and religious reasons. There are records of Thutmose III and other pharaohs bringing back live elephants, giraffes, baboons, and leopards from foreign wars or expeditions as tribute. These creatures might be kept in palace gardens or temple precincts. For instance, the 18th Dynasty official Rekhmire’s tomb shows Nubian chiefs presenting a giraffe and a baboon as tribute to Pharaoh – an image that underscores the trade and import of exotic fauna.
Domestication and Trade of Animals
Egypt was home to some of the earliest domestications in Africa. Dogs descended from wolves were domesticated long before Egyptian civilization (likely in the Near East), but they appear in Egyptian prehistory and were kept as hunting companions and watchdogs. By the Predynastic period, Egyptians had dogs of various breeds – in art we see sleek greyhound-like dogs and stockier guard dogs. They often gave pet dogs names (archaeologists have even found dog collars). Cats (Felis silvestris lybica, the wild desert cat) famously became domesticated in Egypt. Wild cats were naturally attracted to human grain stores that drew in rodents; over time, Egyptians encouraged their presence for pest control. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000 BCE), cats are shown in tomb paintings as tame household pets curled under chairs. Egyptians likely took in kittens and gradually bred cats that were more docile; by the New Kingdom, the domestic cat was common in homes. They proved invaluable for protecting granaries from mice and snakes, earning them a cherished place in the household (and later a sacred status through Bastet). Other animals domesticated or tamed in Egypt include geese, ducks, pigeons, and possibly guinea fowl. There is evidence Egyptians attempted to tame even gazelles and hyenas; a few New Kingdom tombs show pet gazelles and monkeys on leashes. However, not all animals were amenable: hyenas were fattened for food but not truly domesticated, and attempts to domesticate certain antelopes were given up after the Old Kingdom.
Through trade, Egyptians also acquired animals not native to the Nile Valley. The fabled Land of Punt (likely in the Horn of Africa) provided incense and exotica – Egyptian records from Queen Hatshepsut’s expedition (c. 1470 BCE) depict baboons, giraffes, leopards, and ostriches among the treasures of Punt. Baboons in particular were highly valued; all sacred baboons in Egypt (used in temples and as pets of the elite) were imported, since the species did not live naturally along the Nile. DNA analysis of mummified baboons indicates they came from regions like Eritrea/Ethiopia, confirming this long-distance trade. Nubia (to the south) and the lands of Syria-Palestine (to the northeast) also sent animals as tribute: from Nubia came monkeys, cattle, giraffes, and occasionally elephants; from the Levant came bears and exotic birds. The Egyptians might keep these creatures in temple zoos or gift them to the gods. A remarkable archaeological find at Hierakonpolis (Nekhen), the Predynastic capital, revealed a sort of menagerie dating to about 3500 BCE: tombs of elite individuals were accompanied by burials of animals like an elephant, hippopotamus, leopard, crocodiles, baboon, and wild cattle.
Egypt was home to some of the earliest domestications in Africa. Dogs descended from wolves were domesticated long before Egyptian civilization (likely in the Near East), but they appear in Egyptian prehistory and were kept as hunting companions and watchdogs. By the Predynastic period, Egyptians had dogs of various breeds – in art we see sleek greyhound-like dogs and stockier guard dogs. They often gave pet dogs names (archaeologists have even found dog collars). Cats (Felis silvestris lybica, the wild desert cat) famously became domesticated in Egypt. Wild cats were naturally attracted to human grain stores that drew in rodents; over time, Egyptians encouraged their presence for pest control. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000 BCE), cats are shown in tomb paintings as tame household pets curled under chairs. Egyptians likely took in kittens and gradually bred cats that were more docile; by the New Kingdom, the domestic cat was common in homes. They proved invaluable for protecting granaries from mice and snakes, earning them a cherished place in the household (and later a sacred status through Bastet). Other animals domesticated or tamed in Egypt include geese, ducks, pigeons, and possibly guinea fowl. There is evidence Egyptians attempted to tame even gazelles and hyenas; a few New Kingdom tombs show pet gazelles and monkeys on leashes. However, not all animals were amenable: hyenas were fattened for food but not truly domesticated, and attempts to domesticate certain antelopes were given up after the Old Kingdom.
Through trade, Egyptians also acquired animals not native to the Nile Valley. The fabled Land of Punt (likely in the Horn of Africa) provided incense and exotica – Egyptian records from Queen Hatshepsut’s expedition (c. 1470 BCE) depict baboons, giraffes, leopards, and ostriches among the treasures of Punt. Baboons in particular were highly valued; all sacred baboons in Egypt (used in temples and as pets of the elite) were imported, since the species did not live naturally along the Nile. DNA analysis of mummified baboons indicates they came from regions like Eritrea/Ethiopia, confirming this long-distance trade. Nubia (to the south) and the lands of Syria-Palestine (to the northeast) also sent animals as tribute: from Nubia came monkeys, cattle, giraffes, and occasionally elephants; from the Levant came bears and exotic birds. The Egyptians might keep these creatures in temple zoos or gift them to the gods. A remarkable archaeological find at Hierakonpolis (Nekhen), the Predynastic capital, revealed a sort of menagerie dating to about 3500 BCE: tombs of elite individuals were accompanied by burials of animals like an elephant, hippopotamus, leopard, crocodiles, baboon, and wild cattle.
Cultural and Social Impact
Animals in Daily Life and Society
Animals touched every aspect of daily life in ancient Egypt, from the grand temples to the humble homes. As pets and household companions, animals provided both functional benefits and emotional comfort. Cats in the house protected food stores from vermin and were adored by their owners; many pet cats even had collars or were given as gifts. Archaeologists have found cats buried lovingly alongside their owners or in necropolises, sometimes mummified to accompany humans in the afterlife. Egyptian art often shows a family pet cat sitting under a chair or on its owner’s lap, indicating real affection. Dogs were equally cherished; they served as hunting aides and guard dogs, but also as loyal pets. In tomb inscriptions, some dogs are named and depicted at their master’s feet. When a beloved dog died, the family might mourn deeply (one letter from the New Kingdom has a master grieving the loss of his hunting dog). Monkeys (like baboons and green monkeys) were occasionally kept by the wealthy as amusing pets – tomb paintings show monkeys on leashes or climbing on furniture, even helping pick fruit. There are also records of falcons kept and tamed by priests (perhaps an early form of falconry or simply for religious use), and carrier pigeons might have been used to send messages by the later eras. The integration of animals into domestic life meant that Egyptians saw them as members of their world – not merely beasts, but creatures under the gods’ care. This close relationship bred a culture of kindness (by ancient standards) toward animals, especially those considered sacred or useful. Ancient Greek observers like Herodotus were amazed at how Egyptians lived alongside creatures that other cultures might avoid; for instance, Egyptians didn’t fear ibis birds nesting in their towns, since those birds ate snakes and were thus welcome pest controllers and sacred to Thoth.
Laws, Taboos, and Sacred Protections
Because many animals had divine associations, there were strong cultural taboos and even legal consequences around their treatment. Harming or killing a sacred animal was one of the gravest offenses in Egyptian society. Cats were so highly esteemed that, according to Herodotus, if anyone killed a cat (even accidentally), the punishment was death. One tale recounts a Roman who killed an Egyptian cat – an outraged mob lynched him despite the Roman authorities, reflecting how non-negotiable this taboo was. Herodotus also noted that when a house cat died of natural causes, the family would shave their eyebrows in mourning, and when a beloved dog died, they shaved their entire body as a sign of grief. This ritual underscore how deeply animals were integrated into family and spiritual life. Sacred animals like the Apis bull had 24/7 protection; the theft or injury of an Apis bull would have been seen as an attack on the god Ptah himself. In fact, when the Persian king Cambyses II reportedly killed an Apis bull in rage, it was said the gods struck him with madness for his sacrilege. Many cities had local animal cults and accordingly had taboos against eating or harming that creature. What was forbidden in one region might be commonplace in another, which sometimes caused inter-city rivalry (classical writers mention a feud between the people of Oxyrhynchus, who worshipped a certain fish, and a neighboring town that ate it). Generally, Egyptians avoided consuming animals linked to gods – for example, they shunned the crowned crane in areas where it was associated with Horus, or certain fish species sacred to Isis and Osiris were not used for food. On the other hand, animals considered impure or associated with chaos were treated warily. The pig was linked to the god Set (and in one myth, Set took the form of a black boar to attack Horus), so although Egyptians did raise pigs, they had a low status and pigherds were despised to the point of being barred from temples (per Herodotus’s account). Likewise, hippopotami and crocodiles – while deified in some forms – were also hunted and controlled when they threatened people, showing a pragmatic side to animal reverence.
Significantly, the protection of animals even figured into military events. In 525 BCE, the Persians under Cambyses II won the Battle of Pelusium by exploiting Egyptian animal reverence. Ancient reports (perhaps exaggerated) say the Persians painted the image of Bastet (the cat goddess) on their shields and drove packs of cats, dogs, sheep, and ibises in front of their army as they advanced. The Egyptian defenders, terrified of injuring the sacred animals or offending Bastet, faltered and were defeated. While the exact truth of this account is debated, it illustrates how well-known the Egyptian respect for animals was in the ancient world. Indeed, Egyptian priests sometimes went to extraordinary lengths to care for sacred creatures: at Sobek’s temple, priests tamed crocodiles and adorned them with jewels; at Saqqara’s Anubis shrine, thousands of dogs and jackals were bred and mummified to honor the jackal-god. The legal sanctity of certain animals was such that Egyptian law (and later Ptolemaic law) protected them fiercely. On the flip side, some animals were considered so dangerous or unclean that they had to be ritually controlled – for example, during certain festivals Egyptians would publicly kill a set animal (an animal associated with Seth, like a desert oryx or a pig) as a symbolic destruction of evil. There was even a ritual in which a wax model of Apophis (the chaos snake) was spat upon and cut into pieces. These acts show that while many animals were sacred, the Egyptians acknowledged a need to subdue those creatures symbolizing darkness or disorder.
Myths, Legends, and Social Beliefs
Over time, numerous stories and folk beliefs developed around Egypt’s animals. Many were rooted in religion: for instance, there was a popular tale about the lioness goddess (the “Eye of Ra”) who became angry and ran away to Nubia, and how the god Thoth lured her back with music and beer, transforming her into the gentle Bastet – this myth explained why the fierce lioness became the benign cat and was celebrated in lively Bastet festivals with music and drink.
In daily life, the Egyptians also had practical folk knowledge of animal behavior. They knew the ibis ate venomous snakes and thus regarded the bird as a protector. They observed that mongooses (ichneumons) fought cobras, which likely reinforced the view of certain creatures as champions against chaos. The Egyptians tended to interpret the natural actions of animals as divine messages: a sudden appearance of a hawk might mean Horus was watching, or a scarab beetle rolling its ball was the sun god pushing the sun. This mindset made animals an integral part of the Egyptian “language” of signs and omens. For example, dreams or omens involving animals were recorded in dream books – dreaming of a crocodile could be ominous unless it was in a protective context of Sobek, whereas seeing a cat in a good context meant Bastet’s blessing.
Some stories highlight the Egyptians’ mix of fear and reverence. The crocodile, dreaded for its menace, was also mythologized – one tale speaks of a “Crocodile of the Nile” so old and venerated that it was fed by priests and adorned with gold (likely a nod to the Petsuchos of Crocodilopolis). Snakes too were both feared and sacred; the cobra was the royal uraeus and had a whole class of protective deities (like goddess Wadjet and a host of cobra goddesses guarding kings and tombs), yet Egyptians had many spells to ward off snake bites and a rich myth of Isis using a serpent to trick Ra. Scorpions were deadly in the desert, so the goddess Serqet was invoked for protection, and a legend grew of Isis traveling with seven scorpion guardians who avenged her against the unjust – a tale that emphasized even venomous creatures could serve the divine will. There was also the famous narrative in the Book of the Dead where the baboon (one form of Thoth) sits atop the scales of justice, supervising the weighing of the heart and warning off a devouring monster – reinforcing the idea that animals participated in maintaining cosmic justice.
In everyday social life, animals left their mark on language and identity. Many Egyptians names included animal references (e.g. “Ta-Miou” meaning “the cat” for a beloved daughter, or “Sabu” meaning “jackal”). Egyptian proverbs and metaphors often drew on animal behavior: a fickle friend might be called “a crocodile on land, a crocodile in water” (implying danger everywhere), or a hardworking person “plows like an ox.” The fact that animals were part of the Egyptian moral and imaginative universe is perhaps best exemplified by how they treated them in death. Not only were pets mummified, but even food animals intended for the afterlife were mummified (tomb provisions of poultry, beef cuts, etc., were wrapped and preserved to sustain the soul). This respect in death mirrors that given in life.
Ultimately, the special status of animals in Egyptian culture fostered a society where humans saw themselves in a continuum with the animal world. They passed laws, formed cults, and created art that elevated animals to an almost human (or super-human) status. While they certainly exploited animals for work and food, they also expressed gratitude and awe for them. This balance of practical use and sacred respect is a hallmark of ancient Egyptian civilization.
Preservation and Archaeological Discoveries
Animal Mummies and What They Reveal
Modern archaeology has uncovered a wealth of evidence attesting to the Egyptians’ devotion to animals. Perhaps most dramatic are the animal mummies that have survived millennia. Starting from the early 19th century, explorers in Egypt began discovering not only human mummies but also mummified beasts in enormous quantities. In some cases, entire mummy caches have come to light, shedding insight into the scale of animal cults. At Saqqara, the vast necropolis of Memphis, archaeologists have mapped extensive underground galleries filled with animal burials. One of the most famous is the Serapeum of Saqqara, first discovered in 1850, which contains the massive stone sarcophagi of the sacred Apis bulls.
These granite coffins (some weighing over 60 tons) held the mummified remains of Apis bulls from the New Kingdom through the Late Period – approximately 64 bulls in total were interred here over 1,300+ years. The Serapeum’s excavation confirmed many historical accounts of the Apis cult and revealed inscriptions that detailed the bulls’ ages and the pharaohs who buried them. Nearby at Saqqara, excavations have also identified a “Catacomb of Anubis” – essentially a dog cemetery – containing possibly 7 to 8 million mummified dogs and jackals offered to the jackal-god Anubis. Researchers Salima Ikram and Paul Nicholson have studied this dog catacomb and found that most of the mummies were of puppies, bred and sacrificed at only a few months old to supply the ceaseless demand for Anubis offerings. While such a practice seems grim today, it underscores the economic and religious weight of the animal cult industry in later Egyptian times.
Likewise, a “Cemetery of Cats” at Saqqara, first plundered in the 19th century, held an immense number of cat mummies; many of these were unfortunately ground up or exported as fertilizer in the 1800s (an estimated 180,000 cat mummies were shipped to England for use as fertilizer around 1890, a testament to how many were available). Recent excavations in 2019 at Saqqara’s Bubasteion area found dozens of cat mummies and even mummified lion cubs, indicating the range of felines that were sacred to Bastet. It was the first discovery of lion mummies, confirming ancient reports that lions too were occasionally sacred to the goddess.
In Middle Egypt, at Tuna el-Gebel (the necropolis of Hermopolis), archaeologists have explored tomb galleries filled with millions of ibis and baboon mummies dedicated to Thoth. Some 4 million sacred ibis burials have been estimated in Tuna el-Gebel alone. The mummies were placed in pottery jars or limestone coffins and stacked floor to ceiling in dark tunnels. Many still bear hieratic ink labels invoking Thoth on behalf of the donor. Similarly, at Abydos and other sites, cemeteries of falcons and ibises have been found, each tied to the local cult (Abydos had a cult to Osiris where falcons, symbolizing Horus, were offered). At the Faiyum oasis (ancient Shedet/Crocodilopolis), excavations have uncovered cemeteries of crocodile mummies of all sizes – from hatchlings to giant 5-meter beasts – wrapped in linens. Some crocodile mummies, as mentioned, contained baby crocs in their bandages, probably to present a whole family to Sobek or to enhance the offering’s potency.
At the temple of Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt (a Greco-Roman period temple to Sobek and Horus), a cache of mummified crocodiles was found in the 19th century, and a number of them are now displayed in the on-site museum: dried, blackened crocodile bodies sometimes still with gilded crests or inserted artificial eyes to give them a lifelike appearance. These finds confirm that the practice of crocodile mummification mentioned by writers like Strabo was very real.
Smaller-scale discoveries also contribute to the picture. Tens of thousands of mummified snakes (mostly cobras and horned vipers) have been unearthed in mud-brick tombs at Egyptian temples, likely offerings to cobra goddesses. Fish mummies (tilapia and perch, for instance) have been found at Oxyrhynchus and Esna, where certain fish were sacred. Shrew mice and ichneumon (mongoose) mummies – linked to Horus and Atum – have appeared in Tuna el-Gebel and other North Saqqara catacombs, demonstrating that even tiny creatures had cult niches. X-rays of many animal mummies in museums have revealed that some are not what they seem (occasionally, a beautifully wrapped “hawk” mummy might contain only a few bones, or multiple ibis skeletons bundled together), implying that embalmers sometimes resorted to token offerings when demand exceeded supply. Even this is informative, showing an almost industrial level of votive mummy production in late periods.
Notable Sites and Artifacts
Egypt is dotted with sites that highlight the importance of animals, often yielding extraordinary artifacts. In the Nile Delta city of Bubastis (Tell Basta), excavations uncovered the remains of Bastet’s temple – including numerous bronze cat statues and jar burials of cats. The ground was littered with votive offerings from pilgrims: small bronze figurines of cats, lion-headed goddess statues, and cat amulets. In one part of the temple, archaeologists found a pit with over 80 felines carefully interred. These finds match Herodotus’s account of Bubastis as a hub of feline worship. Further north, at Tanis, archaeologists found a sanctuary with dozens of falcon mummies and falcon-head coffins, likely connected to Horus or a local sun cult. At Elephantine Island in Aswan, the temple of Khnum has yielded ram skulls and skeletons in its sacred lake area – possibly the remains of honored ram avatars of the god. Meanwhile, in the Western Desert, the site of Kharga oasis revealed an intriguing shrine filled with millions of locusts preserved in jars (yes, even insects were mummified as offerings, perhaps to appease a deity to protect crops from locust plagues).
One of the most famous recent discoveries was at Saqqara in 2019 and 2020, where a cache of mummified animals was found in a sealed tomb: it included not only dozens of cats but also cobra and crocodile mummies and the aforementioned lion cubs. The lions, in particular, caused a stir, as they confirmed that lions were sometimes bred or kept for ritual (something hinted at in texts but not proven archaeologically until then). In the same area, beautiful gilded wooden statues of cats, a bronze cobra statue, and a carved lion-head brazier were uncovered, showing the artistry devoted to animal cult paraphernalia.
Another remarkable site is at Edfu and Hierakonpolis, where earlier layers (Predynastic) contained the remains of that proto-zoo. For instance, at Hierakonpolis, the skeleton of a 5,600-year-old elephant was found in a tomb, with signs it had been fed (grain and dung analysis) and given a ceremonial burial with grave goods. This predates the pharaonic period but indicates a ritual practice of associating powerful animals with leadership even before Egypt was unified.
Museums around the world today house some of these animal-related artifacts: the Louvre has an exquisite bronze of a cat nursing kittens (dedicated to Bastet), the Cairo Museum displays large sarcophagi of bulls and baboons, and the British Museum holds the mummy of the famous “North Saqqara Apis bull” from the Serapeum (one huge coffin lid from there is also in London). The discovery of the Apis Papyrus (a record of Apis bull mummification rituals) has given scholars insight into how the embalming of a bull was performed – including removal of internal organs and packing the body with resin-soaked linen, much like a human mummy.
Finally, sites like Kom Ombo and Esna have small museums highlighting the animal cults: at Kom Ombo, visitors can see around twenty crocodile mummies of varying sizes, along with crocodile eggs and fetuses preserved by priests of Sobek. At Shiruna in the Kharga oasis, a temple of the god Seth was found to contain an array of animal statues – reflecting Seth’s connection to donkeys, turtles, and fishes (creatures considered unclean elsewhere but sacred to him). And at Giza, near the Great Pyramid, the tomb of Queen Hetepheres included bed legs carved as lion’s paws and a carrying chair decorated with cobra heads – showing how even royal furniture incorporated animal motifs for protection and royal power.
Each archaeological discovery reinforces how deeply animals were interwoven with Egyptian identity. Whether through the grand processions of mummified bulls or the humble pet cat laid to rest with its owner, the material record aligns with the writings: animals were not secondary in Egypt, but central. They were gods, workers, family members, and symbols all at once. Egyptian culture, in many ways, cannot be understood without appreciating the role animals played in religion, economy, art, and daily life. The ongoing excavations in sites like Saqqara and new technology (such as DNA analysis on ibis mummies or CT-scans of cat mummies) will no doubt continue to shed light on this fascinating aspect of ancient Egypt, but even now it is clear that the ancient Egyptians’ bond with the animal world was profound and enduring.
